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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Advances in the pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction &#40;HFrEF&#41; have led to a substantial decline in the absolute rates of sudden cardiac death &#40;SCD&#41; over the past three decades&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> Nevertheless&#44; SCD still accounts for approximately 40&#37; of all-cause mortality in contemporary HFrEF clinical trials&#44; mostly attributable to ventricular arrhythmias&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> Currently&#44; the selection criteria of candidates for an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator &#40;ICD&#41; for primary prevention of SCD are based on left ventricular ejection fraction and New York Heart Association class&#44; which have several limitations&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> The majority of patients with HFrEF in whom an ICD is implanted for primary prevention according to current guidelines do not in fact receive appropriate therapies&#44; and a non-negligible percentage of those who do not meet the criteria for ICD implantation are resuscitated from SCD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Additional parameters are warranted to improve the selection of candidates for ICD implantation&#46; At the same time&#44; ventricular arrhythmias are a significant source of morbidity in patients with HFrEF and those with a larger arrhythmic substrate may benefit from more intensive treatment strategies&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Simple&#44; noninvasive tools for stratifying the arrhythmic substrate in clinical practice would be useful for the tailoring of pharmacological therapy&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fibrotic myocardial tissue not only is a risk marker for the occurrence of ventricular arrythmias but also has a causal effect&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> Myocardial fibrosis load&#44; as assessed by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging &#40;MRI&#41;&#44; is strongly associated with the incidence of malignant ventricular arrythmias&#44; although cardiac MRI may not be a feasible first-line screening test due to availability concerns and incompatibility with some implanted devices&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Galectin-3 &#40;Gal-3&#41; is a beta-galactosid binding protein that promotes the conversion of inactive fibroblasts to active myofibroblasts and increases collagen and glycoprotein content in the myocardium&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> Gal-3 thus promotes myocardial fibrosis and ventricular remodeling&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> Gal-3 has been studied in clinical settings and higher Gal-3 levels are associated with a worse prognosis in patients with heart failure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;8</span></a> As Gal-3 promotes myocardial fibrosis&#44; it may indirectly increase the risk of ventricular arrhythmias&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a></p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the study by Erdogan et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> published in this issue of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Journal</span>&#44; the authors assessed a potential association between Gal-3 levels and the occurrence of ventricular fibrillation&#47;ventricular tachycardia &#40;VF&#47;VT&#41; episodes in patients with ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy and an implanted VVI-ICD&#46; Nineteen healthy controls and 32 patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy were included&#44; in whom Gal-3 levels were quantified and a prior history of VF&#47;VT episodes was assessed&#46; Gal-3 levels were significantly higher in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy than in controls&#46; Among patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy&#44; Gal-3 levels were significantly higher in those with a history of ventricular arrhythmia &#40;VF&#47;VT&#41; who required ICD therapy compared with patients not requiring treatment&#44; and Gal-3 levels were particularly high in patients with a prior arrhythmia storm&#46; Of note&#44; Gal-3 levels were reasonably accurate for discriminating patients with prior VF&#47;VT episodes&#44; with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0&#46;823 &#40;95&#37; confidence interval &#91;CI&#93; 0&#46;698-0&#46;948&#41;&#46; A cut-off of 7 ng&#47;ml presented 84&#37; sensitivity and 75&#37; specificity for discriminating patients with prior VF&#47;VT episodes&#46; The authors concluded that Gal-3 may be used to improve risk stratification in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy who are more prone to developing VF&#47;VT episodes&#46;</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Gal-3 has potential advantages as a prognostic marker in clinical practice since it is an easily accessible and inexpensive tool&#44; unlike imaging methods&#46; Moreover&#44; it directly reflects the underlying pathophysiology&#44; as myocardial extracellular matrix remodeling leads to electrical heterogeneity that promotes VT&#47;VF in patients with heart failure&#44; and Gal-3 is a fibrosis marker that reflects the extent of the arrhythmogenic substrate&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#44;6</span></a> The identification of biomarkers that simultaneously participate in pathophysiology and are predictors of clinical outcomes may be particularly valuable in clinical practice&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> Published data on Gal-3 regarding risk stratification of arrhythmic events in patients with HFrEF&#44; particularly in those with ischemic cardiomyopathy&#44; are very scarce&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> Erdogan et al&#46;&#8217;s findings thus add to the knowledge of a potential biomarker for use in such a clinical scenario&#46; Their results are consistent with a study by Pietro et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> who reported significantly higher Gal-3 levels in patients with sustained VT&#47;VF episodes among heart failure patients undergoing ICD implantation&#46; Moreover&#44; higher Gal-3 levels were predictive of VT&#47;VF episodes &#40;hazard ratio 1&#46;05&#44; 95&#37; CI 1&#46;00-1&#46;11&#44; p&#61;0&#46;04&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a></p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The findings of Erdogan et al&#46;&#8217;s study<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> need to be interpreted with caution&#44; considering its limited sample size&#46; Moreover&#44; the case-control design and the retrospective assessment of arrhythmic events may have led to overestimation of its results&#46; Nevertheless&#44; the findings are hypothesis-generating and identify Gal-3 as a potential complementary biomarker for predicting the risk of VF&#47;VT episodes in patients with HFrEF of ischemic etiology&#46; Larger studies prospectively assessing the accuracy of Gal-3 levels for predicting ventricular arrhythmias are warranted&#44; as this parameter may improve risk stratification and could guide the decision whether to implant an ICD using a multiparameter approach&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> In addition&#44; indirect assessment of myocardial fibrotic burden using Gal-3 may be useful for tailoring pharmacological therapy in patients with HFrEF with a higher risk of ventricular arrhythmias&#46;</p><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0005">Funding</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">None&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0010">Conflicts of interest</span><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The author has no conflicts of interest to declare&#46;</p></span></span>"
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Galectin-3: A simple tool for a complex clinical issue?
Galectina-3: uma ferramenta simples para uma questão clínica complexa?
Tiago Pereira-da-Silva
Department of Cardiology, Hospital de Santa Marta, Centro Hospitalar Universitário de Lisboa Central, Lisbon, Portugal
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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Advances in the pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment of heart failure with reduced ejection fraction &#40;HFrEF&#41; have led to a substantial decline in the absolute rates of sudden cardiac death &#40;SCD&#41; over the past three decades&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> Nevertheless&#44; SCD still accounts for approximately 40&#37; of all-cause mortality in contemporary HFrEF clinical trials&#44; mostly attributable to ventricular arrhythmias&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a> Currently&#44; the selection criteria of candidates for an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator &#40;ICD&#41; for primary prevention of SCD are based on left ventricular ejection fraction and New York Heart Association class&#44; which have several limitations&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a> The majority of patients with HFrEF in whom an ICD is implanted for primary prevention according to current guidelines do not in fact receive appropriate therapies&#44; and a non-negligible percentage of those who do not meet the criteria for ICD implantation are resuscitated from SCD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Additional parameters are warranted to improve the selection of candidates for ICD implantation&#46; At the same time&#44; ventricular arrhythmias are a significant source of morbidity in patients with HFrEF and those with a larger arrhythmic substrate may benefit from more intensive treatment strategies&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Simple&#44; noninvasive tools for stratifying the arrhythmic substrate in clinical practice would be useful for the tailoring of pharmacological therapy&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Fibrotic myocardial tissue not only is a risk marker for the occurrence of ventricular arrythmias but also has a causal effect&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> Myocardial fibrosis load&#44; as assessed by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging &#40;MRI&#41;&#44; is strongly associated with the incidence of malignant ventricular arrythmias&#44; although cardiac MRI may not be a feasible first-line screening test due to availability concerns and incompatibility with some implanted devices&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Galectin-3 &#40;Gal-3&#41; is a beta-galactosid binding protein that promotes the conversion of inactive fibroblasts to active myofibroblasts and increases collagen and glycoprotein content in the myocardium&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> Gal-3 thus promotes myocardial fibrosis and ventricular remodeling&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> Gal-3 has been studied in clinical settings and higher Gal-3 levels are associated with a worse prognosis in patients with heart failure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;8</span></a> As Gal-3 promotes myocardial fibrosis&#44; it may indirectly increase the risk of ventricular arrhythmias&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0085"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a></p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In the study by Erdogan et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> published in this issue of the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Journal</span>&#44; the authors assessed a potential association between Gal-3 levels and the occurrence of ventricular fibrillation&#47;ventricular tachycardia &#40;VF&#47;VT&#41; episodes in patients with ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy and an implanted VVI-ICD&#46; Nineteen healthy controls and 32 patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy were included&#44; in whom Gal-3 levels were quantified and a prior history of VF&#47;VT episodes was assessed&#46; Gal-3 levels were significantly higher in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy than in controls&#46; Among patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy&#44; Gal-3 levels were significantly higher in those with a history of ventricular arrhythmia &#40;VF&#47;VT&#41; who required ICD therapy compared with patients not requiring treatment&#44; and Gal-3 levels were particularly high in patients with a prior arrhythmia storm&#46; Of note&#44; Gal-3 levels were reasonably accurate for discriminating patients with prior VF&#47;VT episodes&#44; with an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0&#46;823 &#40;95&#37; confidence interval &#91;CI&#93; 0&#46;698-0&#46;948&#41;&#46; A cut-off of 7 ng&#47;ml presented 84&#37; sensitivity and 75&#37; specificity for discriminating patients with prior VF&#47;VT episodes&#46; The authors concluded that Gal-3 may be used to improve risk stratification in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy who are more prone to developing VF&#47;VT episodes&#46;</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Gal-3 has potential advantages as a prognostic marker in clinical practice since it is an easily accessible and inexpensive tool&#44; unlike imaging methods&#46; Moreover&#44; it directly reflects the underlying pathophysiology&#44; as myocardial extracellular matrix remodeling leads to electrical heterogeneity that promotes VT&#47;VF in patients with heart failure&#44; and Gal-3 is a fibrosis marker that reflects the extent of the arrhythmogenic substrate&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#44;6</span></a> The identification of biomarkers that simultaneously participate in pathophysiology and are predictors of clinical outcomes may be particularly valuable in clinical practice&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0105"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> Published data on Gal-3 regarding risk stratification of arrhythmic events in patients with HFrEF&#44; particularly in those with ischemic cardiomyopathy&#44; are very scarce&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> Erdogan et al&#46;&#8217;s findings thus add to the knowledge of a potential biomarker for use in such a clinical scenario&#46; Their results are consistent with a study by Pietro et al&#46;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a> who reported significantly higher Gal-3 levels in patients with sustained VT&#47;VF episodes among heart failure patients undergoing ICD implantation&#46; Moreover&#44; higher Gal-3 levels were predictive of VT&#47;VF episodes &#40;hazard ratio 1&#46;05&#44; 95&#37; CI 1&#46;00-1&#46;11&#44; p&#61;0&#46;04&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span></a></p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The findings of Erdogan et al&#46;&#8217;s study<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> need to be interpreted with caution&#44; considering its limited sample size&#46; Moreover&#44; the case-control design and the retrospective assessment of arrhythmic events may have led to overestimation of its results&#46; Nevertheless&#44; the findings are hypothesis-generating and identify Gal-3 as a potential complementary biomarker for predicting the risk of VF&#47;VT episodes in patients with HFrEF of ischemic etiology&#46; Larger studies prospectively assessing the accuracy of Gal-3 levels for predicting ventricular arrhythmias are warranted&#44; as this parameter may improve risk stratification and could guide the decision whether to implant an ICD using a multiparameter approach&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0110"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></a> In addition&#44; indirect assessment of myocardial fibrotic burden using Gal-3 may be useful for tailoring pharmacological therapy in patients with HFrEF with a higher risk of ventricular arrhythmias&#46;</p><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0005">Funding</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">None&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0010">Conflicts of interest</span><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The author has no conflicts of interest to declare&#46;</p></span></span>"
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