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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Iron is an essential micronutrient&#44; well known for its role in oxygen transport and storage&#44; in immune and neural functions&#44; and also in basic cellular processes&#44; including enzymatic reactions&#44; mitochondrial function and oxidative metabolism&#46; It is particularly important in metabolically active tissues such as cardiac muscle&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It is therefore conceptually logical that iron deficiency affects myocardial performance&#46;</p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">However&#44; in this era of enthusiastic advanced and complex cardiac technologies&#44; the prognostic impact of this simple cation deficiency in cardiac conditions was proven only a little over a decade ago&#44; and specifically in the context of heart failure &#40;HF&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a></p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In fact&#44; iron deficiency &#40;regardless of the presence of anemia&#41; emerged as an important co-morbidity with independent prognostic value in HF&#44; being associated with higher mortality&#44; more HF hospitalizations and worse quality of life&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;2</span></a> This finding led to the evaluation and subsequent confirmation of the positive prognostic impact of intravenous iron replacement&#44; using ferric carboxymaltose&#44; in patients with chronic HF with reduced ejection fraction&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Accordingly&#44; the 2016 European Society of Cardiology HF guidelines recommend testing these patients for iron deficiency and treating it&#44; preferably with that intravenous therapy&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> More recently&#44; this benefit was also proven in an acute HF setting&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Acute myocardial infarction &#40;AMI&#41; is a major cause of HF&#46; HF may occur early&#44; frequently during hospital admission for AMI&#44; or later&#44; in subsequent months&#46; There are multiple variables that account for the prognosis of patients with AMI&#44; including successful revascularization&#44; but it depends strongly on the extent of the infarction and the residual left ventricular function&#44; which may be influenced by the iron status at the time of the acute coronary syndrome &#40;ACS&#41;&#46; In fact&#44; since iron is critical in the citric acid cycle for adenosine triphosphate &#40;ATP&#41; generation&#44; iron deficient ACS subjects may suffer adverse glycolysis and increased lactate formation&#44; in order to compensate for decreased ATP production&#44; enhancing ischemic stress and increasing the loss of cardiomyocytes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> Also&#44; there are data indicating that iron has immunomodulatory effects on macrophages&#46; These cells accumulate in the infarcted myocardium and take up iron&#44; which shifts their profile into an anti-inflammatory phenotype&#44; resulting in improved infarct healing and beneficial remodeling&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6&#44;7</span></a> Therefore&#44; iron deficient ACS patients might be prone to more myocardial loss and more adverse remodeling&#44; and subsequently&#44; HF&#46;</p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">However&#44; the impact of iron deficiency on outcomes in patients with ACS has not been well established&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a></p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Mero&#241;o et al<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#46;</span> reported in a study including 244 patients that iron deficiency was a determinant of functional capacity and quality of life 30 days after an ACS&#44; but mortality and hospitalization data were not reported&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a></p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Zeller et al&#46; studied 836 ACS patients&#44; 29&#46;1&#37; of whom had iron deficiency&#44; and this was shown to be a strong predictor of non-fatal AMI and cardiovascular death on follow-up&#46; In fact&#44; the risk of these events in the four years after ACS was 73&#37; higher in those who were iron deficient at the time of ACS&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a></p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Very recently&#44; Reinhold et al<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#46;</span> published a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies including patients with ACS stratified by iron status&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> This meta-analysis included seven studies &#40;n&#61;2821 patients&#41;&#44; all of them reporting a high prevalence of iron deficiency in the ACS population&#46; Short-term outcomes were heterogeneous across studies&#44; but all the studies that assessed long-term prognosis found it was worse in the iron deficiency population&#44; reporting higher all-cause mortality or higher combined endpoint of non-fatal myocardial infarction and cardiovascular mortality&#46; The authors concluded that patients with iron deficiency presenting with ACS may have a worse long-term prognosis&#44; but more studies are required for confirmation&#46;</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In this issue of the Journal&#44; Carina Silva et al&#46; present an observational&#44; retrospective&#44; single center study of 817 patients admitted for ACS&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> 95&#37; of whom had AMI&#44; allocated into two groups according to the presence &#40;n&#61;298&#41; or absence &#40;n&#61;519&#41; of iron deficiency at admission&#44; which was defined as ferritin &#60;100 ug&#47;L or ferritin &#62;100 ug&#47;L and &#60;300 ug&#47;L and transferrin saturation &#60;20&#37;&#44; accounting for both absolute and functional iron deficiency&#46; Groups were then compared regarding the clinical endpoint of death or severe HF in long-term follow-up &#40;medium 738 days&#41;&#44; and independent predictors of prognosis were determined with logistic regression analysis&#46; Authors reported that iron deficiency affected a significant proportion of ACS patients &#40;36&#37;&#41;&#44; and that iron deficient ACS patients presented more frequently with moderate and severe depression of LV function and depression of RV function and higher Killip classes&#46; At follow-up&#44; patients of the iron deficient group had a higher rate of events&#44; namely higher mortality&#44; more severe HF &#40;NYHA III-IV&#41;&#44; and higher hospital readmission rate &#40;9&#46;8&#37; vs&#46; 13&#46;7&#37;&#44; p&#61;0&#46;048&#41;&#46; Iron deficiency was found to be an independent predictor of death or HF on follow-up&#44; along with anemia&#44; left ventricular dysfunction&#44; renal dysfunction and the absence of revascularization&#46; It also enabled further prognostic stratification of ACS patients without anemia for the occurrence of death or severe HF&#44; and of those ACS patients with lower Killip classes &#40;&#8804;2&#41; in terms of the occurrence of death&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As the authors pointed out&#44; this study has several limitations&#58; it is a single center retrospective study&#59; there was no therapeutic follow-up assessment&#44; nor evaluation of anti-thrombotic or optimal medical treatment for HF&#44; nor regarding possible iron supplementation&#44; and many patients &#40;159 of the 976 patients admitted for ACS in the timeframe considered&#41; were excluded because of absence of iron status parameters or other reasons&#44; which might constitute bias&#46; Additionally&#44; only one set of iron kinetic parameter tests was used and only at admission&#44; raising therefore the possibility that clinical outcomes at long-term follow-up depend on the known effect of iron deficiency in HF and not on its effect in ACS&#46;</p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">So&#44; more robust studies are needed to confirm these results&#46;</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Nevertheless&#44; this study highlights the value of a simple&#44; cheap and easy prognostic tool&#44; supporting the inclusion of iron status parameters in the laboratory routine panel for patients admitted for ACS&#46;</p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Additionally&#44; these results raise the expectations of a window of opportunity to easily improve the prognosis of ACS patients&#44; since iron deficiency is a potentially treatable condition&#46; Prospective controlled trials are needed to assess the possible benefit of iron supplementation in ACS&#46;</p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Hopefully in the near future&#44; we shall have more evidence and maybe not a new but a very simple way of further improving prognosis of ACS patients and potentially contributing to the prevention of ischemic HF&#46;</p><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0005">Conflicts of interest</span><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The author has no conflicts of interest to declare&#46;</p></span></span>"
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Isn’t it IRONic? In the era of complex cardiac procedures, the deficiency of a simple tiny cation makes a difference in acute coronary syndromes
Não é IRÔNICO? Na era dos procedimentos cardíacos complexos, a deficiência de um simples catião minúsculo faz a diferença nas síndromes coronárias agudas
Marisa Peres
Cardiology Department, Hospital Distrital de Santarém, Santarém, Portugal
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    "titulo" => "Isn&#8217;t it IRONic&#63; In the era of complex cardiac procedures&#44; the deficiency of a simple tiny cation makes a difference in acute coronary syndromes"
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        "autoresLista" => "Marisa Peres"
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        "titulo" => "N&#227;o &#233; IR&#212;NICO&#63; Na era dos procedimentos card&#237;acos complexos&#44; a defici&#234;ncia de um simples cati&#227;o min&#250;sculo faz a diferen&#231;a nas s&#237;ndromes coron&#225;rias agudas"
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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Iron is an essential micronutrient&#44; well known for its role in oxygen transport and storage&#44; in immune and neural functions&#44; and also in basic cellular processes&#44; including enzymatic reactions&#44; mitochondrial function and oxidative metabolism&#46; It is particularly important in metabolically active tissues such as cardiac muscle&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></a></p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It is therefore conceptually logical that iron deficiency affects myocardial performance&#46;</p><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">However&#44; in this era of enthusiastic advanced and complex cardiac technologies&#44; the prognostic impact of this simple cation deficiency in cardiac conditions was proven only a little over a decade ago&#44; and specifically in the context of heart failure &#40;HF&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0060"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span></a></p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In fact&#44; iron deficiency &#40;regardless of the presence of anemia&#41; emerged as an important co-morbidity with independent prognostic value in HF&#44; being associated with higher mortality&#44; more HF hospitalizations and worse quality of life&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0055"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;2</span></a> This finding led to the evaluation and subsequent confirmation of the positive prognostic impact of intravenous iron replacement&#44; using ferric carboxymaltose&#44; in patients with chronic HF with reduced ejection fraction&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0065"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Accordingly&#44; the 2016 European Society of Cardiology HF guidelines recommend testing these patients for iron deficiency and treating it&#44; preferably with that intravenous therapy&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0070"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> More recently&#44; this benefit was also proven in an acute HF setting&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0075"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></a></p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Acute myocardial infarction &#40;AMI&#41; is a major cause of HF&#46; HF may occur early&#44; frequently during hospital admission for AMI&#44; or later&#44; in subsequent months&#46; There are multiple variables that account for the prognosis of patients with AMI&#44; including successful revascularization&#44; but it depends strongly on the extent of the infarction and the residual left ventricular function&#44; which may be influenced by the iron status at the time of the acute coronary syndrome &#40;ACS&#41;&#46; In fact&#44; since iron is critical in the citric acid cycle for adenosine triphosphate &#40;ATP&#41; generation&#44; iron deficient ACS subjects may suffer adverse glycolysis and increased lactate formation&#44; in order to compensate for decreased ATP production&#44; enhancing ischemic stress and increasing the loss of cardiomyocytes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> Also&#44; there are data indicating that iron has immunomodulatory effects on macrophages&#46; These cells accumulate in the infarcted myocardium and take up iron&#44; which shifts their profile into an anti-inflammatory phenotype&#44; resulting in improved infarct healing and beneficial remodeling&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6&#44;7</span></a> Therefore&#44; iron deficient ACS patients might be prone to more myocardial loss and more adverse remodeling&#44; and subsequently&#44; HF&#46;</p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">However&#44; the impact of iron deficiency on outcomes in patients with ACS has not been well established&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a></p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Mero&#241;o et al<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#46;</span> reported in a study including 244 patients that iron deficiency was a determinant of functional capacity and quality of life 30 days after an ACS&#44; but mortality and hospitalization data were not reported&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0095"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a></p><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Zeller et al&#46; studied 836 ACS patients&#44; 29&#46;1&#37; of whom had iron deficiency&#44; and this was shown to be a strong predictor of non-fatal AMI and cardiovascular death on follow-up&#46; In fact&#44; the risk of these events in the four years after ACS was 73&#37; higher in those who were iron deficient at the time of ACS&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0080"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a></p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Very recently&#44; Reinhold et al<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#46;</span> published a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies including patients with ACS stratified by iron status&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0090"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span></a> This meta-analysis included seven studies &#40;n&#61;2821 patients&#41;&#44; all of them reporting a high prevalence of iron deficiency in the ACS population&#46; Short-term outcomes were heterogeneous across studies&#44; but all the studies that assessed long-term prognosis found it was worse in the iron deficiency population&#44; reporting higher all-cause mortality or higher combined endpoint of non-fatal myocardial infarction and cardiovascular mortality&#46; The authors concluded that patients with iron deficiency presenting with ACS may have a worse long-term prognosis&#44; but more studies are required for confirmation&#46;</p><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In this issue of the Journal&#44; Carina Silva et al&#46; present an observational&#44; retrospective&#44; single center study of 817 patients admitted for ACS&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0100"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span></a> 95&#37; of whom had AMI&#44; allocated into two groups according to the presence &#40;n&#61;298&#41; or absence &#40;n&#61;519&#41; of iron deficiency at admission&#44; which was defined as ferritin &#60;100 ug&#47;L or ferritin &#62;100 ug&#47;L and &#60;300 ug&#47;L and transferrin saturation &#60;20&#37;&#44; accounting for both absolute and functional iron deficiency&#46; Groups were then compared regarding the clinical endpoint of death or severe HF in long-term follow-up &#40;medium 738 days&#41;&#44; and independent predictors of prognosis were determined with logistic regression analysis&#46; Authors reported that iron deficiency affected a significant proportion of ACS patients &#40;36&#37;&#41;&#44; and that iron deficient ACS patients presented more frequently with moderate and severe depression of LV function and depression of RV function and higher Killip classes&#46; At follow-up&#44; patients of the iron deficient group had a higher rate of events&#44; namely higher mortality&#44; more severe HF &#40;NYHA III-IV&#41;&#44; and higher hospital readmission rate &#40;9&#46;8&#37; vs&#46; 13&#46;7&#37;&#44; p&#61;0&#46;048&#41;&#46; Iron deficiency was found to be an independent predictor of death or HF on follow-up&#44; along with anemia&#44; left ventricular dysfunction&#44; renal dysfunction and the absence of revascularization&#46; It also enabled further prognostic stratification of ACS patients without anemia for the occurrence of death or severe HF&#44; and of those ACS patients with lower Killip classes &#40;&#8804;2&#41; in terms of the occurrence of death&#46;</p><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As the authors pointed out&#44; this study has several limitations&#58; it is a single center retrospective study&#59; there was no therapeutic follow-up assessment&#44; nor evaluation of anti-thrombotic or optimal medical treatment for HF&#44; nor regarding possible iron supplementation&#44; and many patients &#40;159 of the 976 patients admitted for ACS in the timeframe considered&#41; were excluded because of absence of iron status parameters or other reasons&#44; which might constitute bias&#46; Additionally&#44; only one set of iron kinetic parameter tests was used and only at admission&#44; raising therefore the possibility that clinical outcomes at long-term follow-up depend on the known effect of iron deficiency in HF and not on its effect in ACS&#46;</p><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">So&#44; more robust studies are needed to confirm these results&#46;</p><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Nevertheless&#44; this study highlights the value of a simple&#44; cheap and easy prognostic tool&#44; supporting the inclusion of iron status parameters in the laboratory routine panel for patients admitted for ACS&#46;</p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Additionally&#44; these results raise the expectations of a window of opportunity to easily improve the prognosis of ACS patients&#44; since iron deficiency is a potentially treatable condition&#46; Prospective controlled trials are needed to assess the possible benefit of iron supplementation in ACS&#46;</p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Hopefully in the near future&#44; we shall have more evidence and maybe not a new but a very simple way of further improving prognosis of ACS patients and potentially contributing to the prevention of ischemic HF&#46;</p><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0005">Conflicts of interest</span><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The author has no conflicts of interest to declare&#46;</p></span></span>"
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Informação do artigo
ISSN: 08702551
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Revista Portuguesa de Cardiologia
en pt

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